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Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation - Wikipedia
Commonwealth of Nations. PRB [10]. After Indonesian president Sukarno lost power in Octoberscout commissioner phd thesis, the dispute ended peacefully and the nation of Malaysia was born. The creation of Malaysia was a merger of the Federation of Malaya now Peninsular MalaysiaSingapore and the British crown colonies of North Borneo and Sarawak collectively known as British Borneonow East Malaysia in September Malaysia had direct military support from Great Britain, Australia and New Zealand.
Indonesia had indirect support from the USSR and China, thus making it an episode of the Cold War in Asia. The confrontation was an undeclared war with most of the action occurring in the border area between Indonesia and East Malaysia on the island of Borneo known as Kalimantan in Indonesia.
The conflict was characterised by restrained scout commissioner phd thesis isolated ground combat, set within tactics of low-level brinkmanship. Combat was usually conducted by company - or platoon -sized operations on either side of the border. Indonesia's campaign of infiltrations into Borneo sought to scout commissioner phd thesis the ethnic and religious diversity in Sabah and Sarawak compared to that of Malaya and Singapore, scout commissioner phd thesis, with the intent of unravelling the proposed state of Malaysia.
The jungle terrain of Borneo and lack of roads straddling the Malaysia—Indonesia border forced both Indonesian and Commonwealth forces to conduct long foot patrols. Both sides relied on light infantry operations and air transport, scout commissioner phd thesis Commonwealth forces enjoyed the advantage of better helicopter deployment and resupply to forward operating bases.
Rivers were also used as a method of transport and infiltration. Although combat operations were primarily conducted by ground forces, airborne forces played a vital support role and naval forces ensured the security of the sea flanks.
The British provided most of the defensive effort, although Malaysian forces steadily increased their contributions, and there were periodic contributions from Australian and New Zealand forces within the combined Far East Strategic Reserve stationed then in West Malaysia and Singapore. Initial Indonesian attacks into East Malaysia relied heavily on local volunteers trained by the Indonesian Army, scout commissioner phd thesis.
Over time, infiltration forces became more organised with the inclusion of a more substantial component of Indonesian forces. To deter and disrupt Indonesia's growing campaign of infiltrations, the British responded in by launching their own covert operations into Indonesian Kalimantan under the code name Operation Claret.
Coinciding with Sukarno announcing a 'year of dangerous living' and the race riots in SingaporeIndonesia launched an expanded campaign of operations into West Malaysia on 17 Augustalbeit without military success.
The intensity of the conflict began to subside following the coup d'etat of October and Sukarno's loss of power to General Suharto. A serious peace negotiations between Indonesia and Malaysia began on Mayand a final peace agreement was signed on 11 August with Indonesia formally recognising Malaysia.
Before Indonesia's Confrontation of Malaysia, Sukarno had sought to develop an independent Indonesian foreign policy, focused on the acquisition of Netherlands New Guinea as a residual issue from the Indonesian National Revolutionand scout commissioner phd thesis Indonesia's credentials as a notable international power operating distinct interests from those of the West and East, scout commissioner phd thesis.
Indonesia had relentlessly pursued its claim to Netherlands New Guinea during the period —, despite facing multiple setbacks in the UN General Assembly to have its claim recognised by the international community. Indonesia was an important country in developing the Non-Aligned Movementhosting the Bandung Conference in Following the Indonesian crisis inwhich had included the Permesta rebellion in eastern Indonesia and the declaration of the PRRIa rebel revolutionary government based in Sumatra; Indonesia had emerged as a notable and rising military power in Southeast Asia.
The diplomatic dispute reached its climax in when Indonesia launched a substantial campaign of airborne and seaborne infiltrations upon Netherlands New Guinea. While the infiltration forces were soundly defeated by Dutch and indigenous forces, Indonesia was able to lend credence to the threat of an Indonesian invasion of Netherlands New Guinea.
The Dutch, facing mounting diplomatic pressure from the Indonesians and the Americans, who were anxious to keep Indonesia from becoming Communist aligned, yielded and agreed to a diplomatic compromise, allowing the Indonesians to gain control of the territory in exchange for pledging to hold scout commissioner phd thesis self-determination plebiscite the Act of Free Choice in the territory by Thus by the close ofIndonesia had achieved a considerable diplomatic victory, which possibly emboldened its self-perception as a notable regional power.
It was in the context of this recent diplomatic scout commissioner phd thesis that Indonesia cast its attention to the British proposal for a unified Malaysian state. Before the British government announcing the East of Suez policy inthey had begun to re-evaluate in the late s their force commitment in the Far East.
As a part of its withdrawal from its Southeast Asian colonies, scout commissioner phd thesis, the UK moved to combine its colonies in North Borneo with the Federation of Malaya which had become independent from Britain inand Singapore which had become self-governing in In Maythe UK and Malayan governments proposed a larger federation called Scout commissioner phd thesis, encompassing the states of Malaya, North BorneoSarawakBruneiand Singapore.
Initially, Indonesia was mildly supportive of the proposed federation, scout commissioner phd thesis, although the PKI Partai Komunis Indonesia — Indonesian Communist Party was firmly opposed to it. In Brunei, it was unclear whether the Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III would support Brunei joining the proposed Malaysian state because of the implied reduction of his political office, and Brunei's oil revenues ensured Brunei's financial viability were it to choose independence.
Furthermore, a Brunei politician, Dr. AM Azahari bin Sheikh Mahmud, scout commissioner phd thesis supporting a unified North Borneo, also opposed a wider Malaysian federation. Inscout commissioner phd thesis, he had sounded out Indonesia about possible aid in training Borneo scout commissioner phd thesis General Abdul Nasution hinted at moral support, and Soebandriothe Indonesian foreign minister and head of intelligence, hinted at supplying more substantial aid.
Azahari was a leftist who had fought in Indonesia in their war for independence. On 8 Decemberthe TNKU staged an insurrection—the Brunei Revolt. The insurrection was an abject failure, as the poorly trained and equipped forces were unable to capture key objectives such as the Sultan of Bruneithe Brunei oil fields, or European hostages, scout commissioner phd thesis.
Within hours of the insurrection being launched, British forces based in Singapore were mobilised for a prompt response. The failure of the insurrection was evident within 30 hours when Gurkha troops airlifted from Singapore secured Brunei town and ensured the Sultan's safety. The degree of Indonesian support for the TNKU remains a subject of debate. While Indonesia at the time denied direct involvement, it did sympathise with the TNKU's objectives to destabilise the proposed Malaysian state.
Following the TNKU's military setback in Brunei, on 20 January Indonesian Foreign Minister Subandrio announced that Indonesia would pursue a policy of Konfrontasi with Malaysia, reversing Indonesia's previous policy of compliance with the British proposal.
This was followed by the first recorded infiltration of Indonesian forces on 12 April when scout commissioner phd thesis police station in Tebedu, Sarawak, was scout commissioner phd thesis. Inthe island of Borneo was divided into four separate states. Scout commissioner phd thesiscomprising four Indonesian provinceswas located in the south of the island.
In the north, separated from Kalimantan by a border some miles long, were the Sultanate of Brunei a British protectorate and two colonies of the United Kingdom UK —British North Borneo later renamed Sabah and Sarawak. The three UK scout commissioner phd thesis totalled some 1.
Sarawak had a population of about , while Sabah's wasscout commissioner phd thesis, and Brunei's was around 80, There was a large Indonesian population in Tawau in southern Sabah and a large and economically active Chinese one in Sarawak.
Despite their population size, Dayaks were spread through the country in village longhouses and were not politically organised. Sarawak was divided into five administrative divisions. Sabah, whose capital city was Scout commissioner phd thesis Kota Kinabalu on the north coast, was divided into several Residencies; those of the Interior and Tawau were on the scout commissioner phd thesis. Apart from either end, the border generally followed a ridgeline throughout its length, rising to almost 2, metres in the Fifth Division.
In the First Division, there were some roads, including a continuous road from Scout commissioner phd thesis to Brunei and around to Sandakan on the east coast of Sabah. There were no roads in the Fourth and Fifth Divisions or the Interior Residency, and in Third Division, scout commissioner phd thesis, there was only the coast road, which was some miles from the border.
Mapping was generally poor, as British maps of the country only showed tiny topographic detail. Indonesian maps were worse; veterans recall "a single black and white sheet for all of Kalimantan torn from a school textbook" in Kalimantan was divided into four provinces, of which East Kalimantan and Scout commissioner phd thesis Kalimantan face the border.
The capital of the West is Pontianak on the west coast, about miles km from the border, and the capital of the East is Samarinda on the south coast, some miles km from the border. There were no roads in the border area other than some in the west, and no road existed linking West and East Kalimantan.
The lack of roads and tracks suitable for vehicles on both sides of the border meant that movement was limited to foot tracks mostly unmarked on any map, as well as water and air movement. There were many large rivers on both sides of the border, and these were the primary means of movement, including hovercraft by the UK, scout commissioner phd thesis.
There were also quite a few small grass airstrips suitable for light aircraft, as dropping zones for parachuted supplies, and helicopters. The equator lies about miles south of Kuching, and most of northern Borneo receives over mm of rain each year. Borneo is naturally covered by tropical rainforests, scout commissioner phd thesis. This covers the mountainous areas cut by many rivers with very steep-sided hills and hilltop ridges often only a few metres wide. The high rainfall means large rivers; these provide a principal means of transport and are formidable tactical obstacles.
Dense mangrove forest covering vast tidal flats intersected with numerous creeks is a feature of many coastal areas, including Brunei and either end of the border. There are cultivated areas in valleys and around villages. In the vicinity of abandoned and current settlements are areas of dense secondary regrowth. The end of the Second World War had brought an end to the Brooke Dynasty rule in Sarawak, scout commissioner phd thesis.
Believing it to be in the best interest of the people of Sarawak, Charles Vyner Brooke ceded the state to the British Crown. The predominantly Malay anti-cession movement, which rejected the British takeover of Sarawak in and had assassinated Duncan Stewartthe first British High Commissioner of Sarawakmay have been the forerunner of the subsequent anti-Malaysia movement in Sarawakheaded by Ahmad Zaidi Adruce. According to Vernon L. Porritt and Hong-Kah Fong, Left-wing and communist cell groups had been present among Sarawak's urban Chinese communities since the s scout commissioner phd thesis s.
Some of the earliest Communist groups in Sabah included the Anti-Fascist League, which later became the Races Liberation Army, and the Borneo Anti-Japanese League, which was made up of the North Borneo Anti-Japanese League and the West Borneo Anti-Japanese League. The latter was led by Wu Chan, who was deported by the Sarawak colonial government to China in Other Communist groups in Sarawak included the Overseas Chinese Youth Association, which was formed inand the Liberation League along with its youth wing, the Advanced Youth Association, which emerged during the s.
These organisations became the nuclei for two Communist guerrilla movements: the anti-Malaysia North Kalimantan People's Army PARAKU and the Sarawak People's Guerrillas PGRS. These various Communist groups were designated by various British and other Western sources as the Clandestine Communist Organisation CCO or the Sarawak Communist Organisation SCO. The Sarawak Communist Organisation was predominantly dominated by ethnic Chinese but also included Dayak supporters.
However, the Sarawak Communist Organisation had little support from ethnic Malays and other indigenous Sarawak peoples. At its height, the SCO had 24, members. Following the Second World WarCommunist influence also penetrated the labour movement and the predominantly Chinese Sarawak United People's Partythe state's first political party which was founded in June The Sarawak Insurgency began after the Brunei Revolt in and SCO would fight alongside the Bruneian rebels and Indonesian forces during the Indonesia—Malaysia confrontation — The Sarawak Communist Organisation and the Bruneian rebels supported and propagated the unification of all British Borneo territories to form an independent leftist North Kalimantan state.
This idea was originally proposed by A. Azaharileader of the Parti Rakyat Brunei Brunei People's Partywho had forged links with Sukarno 's nationalist movement, together with Ahmad Zaidi, in Java in the s. However, the Brunei People's Party was in favour of joining Malaysia on the condition it was as the unified three territories of northern Borneo with their own sultan, and hence was strong enough to resist domination by Malaya, Singapore, Malay administrators or Chinese merchants.
The North Kalimantan or Kalimantan Utara proposal was seen as a post- decolonisation alternative by local opposition against the Malaysia plan. Local opposition throughout the Borneo territories was primarily based on economic, political, scout commissioner phd thesis, historical and cultural differences between the Borneo states and Malaya, as well as the refusal to be subjected under peninsular political domination.
Both Azahari and Zaidi went into exile in Indonesia during the confrontation. While the latter returned to Sarawak and had his political status rehabilitated, Azahari remained in Indonesia until his death on 3 September In the aftermath of the Brunei Revoltthe remnants of the TNKU reached Indonesia.
Possibly fearing British reprisals which never eventuatedmany Chinese communists, possibly several thousand, also fled Sarawak, scout commissioner phd thesis.
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